• Philosophy- a long tradition in the literature of ancient India. All schools said man should strive for the fulfillment of four goals:

CLICK HERE TO GET CRUX FULL STUDY MATERIAL

• Despite similar goals, differences on means to achieve salvation, emerged between the schools.
• By the beginning of the Christian Era- two different schools of philosophy, as follows emerged:

• Vedas- supreme revealed scriptures that hold secrets to salvation. 
• Did not question the authenticity of the Vedas. 
• Had six sub-schools- called Shada Darshana.

• Do not believe in the originality of Vedas & questioned the existence of God.
•  Three major sub-schools

BY NITIN SINGHANIA

1. Samkhya School

• The oldest school of philosophy 
• Founded by Kapil Muni who wrote Samkhya Sutra. 
• ‘Samkhya’ or ‘Sankhya’ literally means ‘count’. 
• Two phases of development as follows:

• Both schools argued that salvation could be attained through knowledge, the lack of which is the root cause for misery of man.
• Believed in dualism or dvaitavada, i.e. the soul & matter are separate entities. 
• This concept- basis of real knowledge. 
• Knowledge- acquired through three main concepts: Pratyaksha: Perception; Anumana: Inference & Shabda: Hearing
• Have a scientific system of inquiry.
• Prakriti & Purusha- basis of reality & absolutely independent. 
• Purusha- closer to attributes of a male & associated with consciousness & cannot be changed or altered. 
• Prakriti – three major attributes: thought, movement & transformation; closer to the physiognomy of a woman.

1. Yoga School

• Yoga school literally means union of two major entities.
• Say that salvation can be achieved by combining meditation & physical application of yogic techniques. 
• Techniques lead to release of Purusha from Prakriti.
• Origin of Yoga & school- in Yogasutra of Patanjali (2nd century BCE).
• Physical aspects of this school- various postures called asanas. 
• Breathing exercises- pranayams. 
• Other means of achieving Mukti or freedom are:

• These techniques help humans to control their mind, body & sensory organs. 
• These exercises help one believe in the existence of God as a guide, mentor & teacher. 
• Help individuals to move away from worldly matter & achieve the concentration required to get salvation. 

1. Nyaya School

• Believe in logical thinking to achieve salvation. 
• Consider life, death & salvation to be like mysteries that can be solved through logical & analytical thinking. 
• Argue that acquiring ‘real knowledge’ can only accrue salvation. 
• Founded by Gautama, author of Nyaya Sutra.
• Argue that use of logical tools like inference, hearing & analogy; a human being could verify truth of a proposition or statement. 
• Argue that the creation of the Universe- was through God’s hands. 
• Believe that God not only created the Universe but also sustained & destroyed it. 
• Constantly stressed on systematic reasoning & thinking.

1. Vaisheshika School

• Believes in the physicality of Universe
• Realistic & objective philosophy that governs the universe. 
• Founder- Kanada who wrote the text governing Vaisheshika philosophy 
• Argue that everything in-universe is created by five main elements (called Dravya): fire, air, water, earth & ether (sky). 
• Argue that reality has many categories- action, attribute, genus, inherence, substance & distinct quality.
• Has a very scientific approach- developed atomic theory, i.e. all material objects are made of atoms. 
• Was also responsible for the beginning of physics in the Indian subcontinent.
• Are propounders of the mechanical process of formation of the Universe.
• Believe in God and consider him as guiding principal.
• Believe in-laws of karma guide this universe, i.e. everything is based on the actions of human beings.

• Believed in salvation, parallel to creation & destruction of the universe, which was acyclic process decided by God.

1. Mimamsa School BY NITIN SINGHANIA

• ‘Mimamsa’ means art of reasoning, interpretation & application. 
• Focuses on the analysis of texts of Samhita & Brahmana.
• Argue that Vedas contain eternal truth & are repositories of all knowledge. 
• To acquire heaven & salvation, they would have to fulfill all the duties prescribed by the Vedas.
• Described in – Sutras of Jaimini of 3rd century BCE. 
• Greatest proponents: Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta.
• Argue that salvation is possible through performing rituals but justification & reasoning behind Vedic rituals, should be understood. 
• Said humans not free of cycle of life & death, until they achieve salvation.
• Main focus- ritualistic part of Vedas, i.e. to achieve salvation one has to perform Vedic rituals. 
• Involves the assistance of priests, hence it inherently legitimized the social distance between various classes. 
• Used as a device by Brahmans to maintain their clout over people.

1. Vedanta School

• Vedanta- two words- ‘Veda’ & ‘ant’, i.e.  end of the Vedas. 
• Upholds the philosophies of life elaborated in Upanishads. 
• Oldest text that formed its basis- Brahmasutra of Badrayana (2nd century BCE). 
• Brahma- the reality of life & everything else is unreal or Maya.
• Atma or consciousness of self is similar to brahma. 
• This argument equalizes atma &brahma, knowledge of the self, would amount to understanding Brahma & lead to salvation.
• Brahma & atma indestructible and eternal. 
• Evolved in 9th century AD with the philosophical intervention of Shankaracharya who wrote commentaries on Upanishads & Bhagavad Gita🡪 led to the development of Advaita Vedanta. 
• Ramanujan- major philosopher (wrote in12th century AD). His intervention led to some differences in this school:

• Gave credence to the Theory of Karma.
• Believed in the theory of Punarjanama or rebirth and that person has to bear the brunt of their previous actions- remedy to which is finding of one’s Brahma.

1. Buddhist Philosophy BY NITIN SINGHANIA

• Founder- Gautama Buddha 
• After his death- his disciples called a council at Rajagriha where the main teachings of Buddhism were codified. These were:

• According to this philosophy- traditional teachings imbibed in Vedas are not useful for achieving salvation & one should not trust them blindly. 
• Buddha said every human being should try to seek liberation through the realization of four noble truths– Suffering in human life; Desire– the fundamental cause of all the suffering; Destroy passions, desires & love for materialistic things to attain nirvana; lastly liberation & optimism. 
•  Nirvana/Salvation- is through an eight-fold path:
• Right Vision
• Right, Resolve: develop a strong will-power to destroy the desires.
• Right Speech: control one’s speech through cultivating right speech
• Right Conduct: move away from desire for materialistic things.
• Right Means of Livelihood: do not use any unfair means to earn their livelihood. 
• Right effort: avoid bad feelings and impressions. 
• Right Mindfulness: keep one’s body, mind and health in correct form. 

1. Right Concentration.

1. Jain Philosophy

• First elaborated by Jain tirthankar or wise person Rishabha Deva, who was one amongst the 24 Tirthankaras
• Adinath- the source of all Jain philosophy. 
• Aristanemi & AjitNath– also disseminated Jain philosophy
• Also oppose the primacy of Vedas to achieve salvation. 
• Argue that a man should control his mind by seeking right perception & knowledge. 
• If coupled with right conduct, would lead to salvation.
• Says man should practice brahmacharya or celibacy, to achieve liberation 
• Major fundamentals:

• Natural & supernatural things in this universe are based on seven fundamental elements, i.e. jiva, ajivaa, asrava, bandha, samvara, nirjara and moksha.
• Two basic types of existences: Astikaya or something that has a physical shape like body & Anastakiya i.e. that which has no physical shape, like ‘time’.
• Everything that has a substance is called dharma, which is basis of qualities possessed by an object or man. 
• The substance is eternal and unchangeable.

1. Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy  BY NITIN  SINGHANIA

• Founder- Brihaspati 
• One of the earliest schools that developed a philosophical theory. 
• Finds mention in Vedas & Brihadarankya Upanishad. 
• Charvaka School- main propounder of materialistic view to achieve salvation. 
• Was dubbed as Lokayata or something derived from common people.
• ‘Lokayata’- meant keen attachment to the physical & material world (loka). 
• Denied the existence of any supernatural or divine agent who could regulate our conduct on earth. 
• Argued against the need to achieve salvation and also denied the existence of Brahma and God.
• Main teachings:

• Against Gods and their representatives on earth – priestly class. 
• Man- centre of all activities.
• Do not consider ‘ether’ as one of the five essential elements, say the universe consists of only four elements: fire, earth, water and air.
• No other world after this one,
• Pleasure should be the ultimate objective of life. 
• Propound theory of ‘eat, drink and make merry’.
• Materialistic philosophies dominated over idealist ones.